Boubakeur el Hakim traded his Paris neighborhood of boulangeries and halal butcher shops for the insurgent camps of Iraq. When he came home, he told his war stories to other young men on the forgotten edges of French society, allegedly persuading some to follow in his footsteps.
His younger brother did, and died fighting US forces.
After years of investigation by French authorities, el Hakim, 24, went on trial this month in a case exposing how the Iraq War has sucked radical youths from Europe to a battlefield where they have learned skills that officials fear may one day be used in domestic terror attacks.
Along with four other young Frenchmen, a Moroccan and an Algerian, el Hakim is accused of funneling French Muslim fighters to Iraq. All the Frenchmen except suspected ringleader Farid Benyettou, 26, have acknowledged going to Iraq or planning to go. All deny inciting others to go.
All seven are accused of criminal association with a terrorist enterprise, a charge that carries a maximum 10-year sentence, though the prosecutor only asked for between three and eight years.
The case is a delicate one in France, which strongly opposed the US-led campaign in Iraq but has long struggled against homegrown terrorism. It also highlights a dilemma in many European nations with growing Muslim populations: Cracking down hard risks alienating or radicalizing moderate Muslims and betraying Western ideals of tolerance.
The suspected nucleus of the network, Benyettou, a janitor turned street preacher, told the court the case against him was "fantasy" and an affront to his freedom of speech. He told the judge he had served only as a friendly ear to young people in his neighborhood, answering questions about Islam that went ignored by France's secular schools and institutions.
In one interrogation session with anti-terrorist agents, however, Benyettou said: "I taught that suicide attacks are legitimate under Islam."
'JUSTIFIED'
"Jihad is justified," he said in another session in the days following his January 2005 arrest, according to the depositions viewed by reporters.
El Hakim described placing and detonating roadside bombs with equipment that resembled a cordless phone, the transcript of one deposition says. He claimed 10 US troops were killed in the last three operations he took part in, it says.
In a French radio interview broadcast from Baghdad in 2003, he urged Parisian friends to join him on the battlefields.
"I'm ready to set off dynamite and boom! Boom! We kill all the Americans!" he said on RTL radio.
In court, while he didn't deny his radio appeal, el Hakim said some of his statements to police were made under duress and that his role in Iraq was primarily "humanitarian."
Investigators say the alleged network funneled about a dozen French fighters to camps linked to the head of al-Qaeda in Iraq, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, and sought to send more before he was killed in a US airstrike in 2006.
The classified case file could fill a suitcase. It includes transcripts of phone conversations; suspects' family trees; extremist Islamic sermons; excerpts from a Web site explaining how to use Kalashnikov rifles; and grainy images of dozens of people questioned in the case.
Since the group was dismantled in 2005, young French Muslims wanting to fight abroad have largely steered clear of such organized cells, said a senior French police official, who was not authorized to be named publicly because of agency policy.
Instead, youths are heading to war zones individually, to better avoid detection.
FRENCH WORRY
The key concern for French police is not where the fighters go but what they do when they come back to France, home to Europe's largest Muslim population, nearly 10 percent of its 62 million people.
There has been no mention in the Paris trial of any plan to attack French sites, but officials say they remain worried about the possibility and that fear bolsters the prosecutor's case.
The so-called 19th arrondissement network is named for the Paris district where it was based, a multi-national neighborhood where families with roots in one-time French colonies in North Africa crowd into housing projects that rise above street markets that offer Moroccan melons.
Frustration among youth of immigrant backgrounds over discrimination and bleak job prospects helped fuel riots in suburban housing projects around France in 2005.
That same frustration, defense lawyer Dominique Many said, pushes some toward Islamic extremism.
Benyettou practiced a strict Salafist interpretation of Islam, and enjoyed credibility among radicals because his brother-in-law was a convicted member of an Algerian insurgency movement.
Benyettou exhibited little charisma during the trial, his gaunt frame hunched on the bench, occasionally brushing back his chest-length hair or nudging up his glasses.
BENYETTOU'S ROLE
But back in the 19th arrondissement, he persuaded - by his own admission to investigators - about 10 young people to leave France for Iraq.
In court, he acknowledged he had had "a role" in helping fighters who wanted to go to Iraq, but said there was no organized network.
"I really believed in the idea," said one of his students, defendant Cherif Kouachi, 25.
He said he was motivated by his outrage at television images of torture of Iraqi inmates at the US prison at Abu Ghraib.
Another alleged member of the group, Peter Cherif, was arrested by US authorities and his mother says he was held in Abu Ghraib. He faces a separate trial in France.
Another, 25-year-old Mohammed El Ayouni, who lost an arm and an eye in 2004 in a US tank shelling near Fallujah, described administering IVs and shots to injured fighters and keeping watch for US troops. He said Iraqi families welcomed the French fighters, preparing their meals and laundering their clothes.
The fighters said they traveled through Syria first, taking Arabic lessons and getting basic weapons training.
When Boubakeur's brother Redouane el Hakim was killed in July 2004 - found in an insurgent hideout in Fallujah bombarded by US forces - his mother organized a memorial celebration of her son's martyrdom, court documents and two defense lawyers on the case said.
It was US authorities who first confirmed the presence of French citizens among Iraqi insurgents.
Other European countries have also fed fighters to Iraq.
Two men considered linked to Europe's deadliest Islamic terror attack, the 2004 bombings in Madrid, are believed to have later killed themselves in suicide attacks in Iraq. Spanish authorities have arrested dozens of people suspected of recruiting Islamic fighters for the Iraq insurgency.
Italian courts have convicted several North Africans of recruiting militants for Iraq in Italy in recent years.
The 75th anniversary summit of NATO was held in Washington from Tuesday to Thursday last week. Its main focus was the reinvigoration and revitalization of NATO, along with its expansion. The shadow of domestic electoral politics could not be avoided. The focus was on whether US President Biden would deliver his speech at the NATO summit cogently. Biden’s fitness to run in the next US presidential election in November was under assessment. NATO is acquiring more coherence and teeth. These were perhaps more evident than Biden’s future. The link to the Biden candidacy is critical for NATO. If Biden loses
Shortly after Hu Jintao (胡錦濤) stepped down as general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in 2012, his successor, Xi Jinping (習近平), articulated the “Chinese Dream,” which aims to rejuvenate the nation and restore its historical glory. While defense analysts and media often focus on China’s potential conflict with Taiwan, achieving “rejuvenation” would require Beijing to engage in at least six different conflicts with at least eight countries. These include territories ranging from the South China Sea and East China Sea to Inner Asia, the Himalayas and lands lost to Russia. Conflicts would involve Taiwan, the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia,
The Sino-Indian border dispute remains one of the most complex and enduring border issues in the world. Unlike China’s borders with Russia and Vietnam, which have seen conflicts, but eventually led to settled agreements, the border with India, particularly the region of Arunachal Pradesh, remains a point of contention. This op-ed explores the historical and geopolitical nuances that contribute to this unresolved border dispute. The crux of the Sino-Indian border dispute lies in the differing interpretations of historical boundaries. The McMahon Line, established by the 1914 Simla Convention, was accepted by British India and Tibet, but never recognized by China, which
In a recent interview with the Malaysian Chinese-language newspaper Sin Chew Daily, former president Ma Ying-jeou (馬英九) called President William Lai (賴清德) “naive.” As always with Ma, one must first deconstruct what he is saying to fully understand the parallel universe he insists on defending. Who is being “naive,” Lai or Ma? The quickest way is to confront Ma with a series of pointed questions that force him to take clear stands on the complex issues involved and prevent him from his usual ramblings. Regarding China and Taiwan, the media should first begin with questions like these: “Did the Chinese Nationalist Party (KMT)